An Education Subtitles English
An Education Subtitles English ===== https://urllio.com/2tkUyQ
This paper is organized as follows: First, conflicting findings on the effects of subtitles on learning will be discussed. Second, a framework will be proposed that can explain these conflicting findings by considering the interaction between subtitles, language proficiency, and visual-textual information complexity (VTIC). In turn, an experimental study will be described that tests the main hypothesis of the framework.
In contrast to studies on language learning, there are only a few studies that have investigated the effects of subtitles for content learning. These studies have shown positive effects for subtitles for content learning in a second language. For example, when watching a short Spanish educational clip, English-speaking students benefited substantially from Spanish subtitles, but even more so from English subtitles (Markham et al., 2001). Another study, focused on different combinations of languages, similarly showed that students performed better at comprehension tests when watching an L2 video with subtitles enabled (Hayati & Mohmedi, 2011).
The previously discussed literature provides a confusing paradox for instructional designers: Are subtitles beneficial, detrimental, or irrelevant for learning Here we will present an attempt to explain the conflicting findings using a framework built on theories of attention and information processing. In short, we propose that the conflicting findings can be integrated by considering the interaction between subtitles, language proficiency, and the level of visual-textual information complexity (VITC) in the video.
An essential characteristic of the human cognitive architecture is that not every type of information is processed in an identical way. Working memory is characterized by having modality-specific channels, one for auditory and one for visual information (Baddeley, 2003). Both have a limited capacity for information, which can only hold information chunks for a few moments before they decay (Baddeley, 2003). During learning tasks, working memory acts as a bottleneck for processing novel information; as more cognitive load is imposed on the learner, less cognitive resources are available for the integration of information into long-term memory, effectively impairing learning (Ginns, 2006; Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). For novel information, the cognitive resources required for processing appears to be primarily dictated by measurable attributes of the information-in-the-world such as the amount of words and their interactivity (Sweller, 2010). As each channel has its own capacity it is generally more effective to distribute processing load between both channels, instead of relying only on one modality (Mayer, 2003). When two sources of information are presented in the same modality this can (more) easily overload our limited processing capacity (Kalyuga et al., 1999). This provides an explanation of why a range of studies found negative effects of subtitles when learning from videos, as both are sources of visual information.
When presented with novel information, it can be difficult to immediately understand where to look. Profound differences in visual search and attention anticipation have been reported for expertise differences in many areas, such as in chess, driving, and clinical reasoning (Chapman & Underwood, 1998; Krupinski et al., 2006; Reingold, Charness, Pomplun, & Stampe, 2001). Given the already high attentional load present in visually complex videos, the presence of subtitles can be expected to have detrimental effects. However, to lower the attentional load, attention can be guided by using attentional cues such as arrows pointing to the most relevant area in a video, or by underling or highlighting these sections. Such attentional cues help novice learners to more effectively direct their attention when and where it is necessary (Boucheix & Lowe, 2010; Ozcelik, Arslan-Ari, & Cagiltay, 2010), possibly lowering detrimental effects of subtitles.
The final proposed factor of VTIC relates to the physical organization of related information in a video. Specifically, the physical distance between a header (such as a label) and its referent. Nontrivial physical distances between headers and referents are detrimental for learning, as longer distances require more cognitive resources to hold and process information (Mayer, 2008). Additionally, longer distances can induce a split-attention effect, as the increased distances require more attention, which can thus not be spent on other, more relevant parts of the video (Mayer & Moreno, 1998). A split-attention effect can further explain the contradictory findings: Subtitles will cause a split-attention in the presence of other visual information, such as graphics, texts, annotated pictures, or diagrams with textual explanations. Furthermore, physical distances can be manipulated to increase or decrease the VTIC without affecting the educational content itself. Using the earlier example of the complex image with labels, the physical distances between the labels and the position in the image can be changed to manipulate the VTIC of a video.
Four types of videos were used: videos with high/low VTIC, and with/without subtitles. To ensure ecological validity, actual videos from MOOCs from the Coursera platform were used as base material; however, to make the videos usable for this experiment they were extensively edited as will be further described. Four videos were used as raw material, which were manipulated to create the four versions of each video, resulting in 16 videos. To manipulate the complexity of the videos, the four proposed VTIC components were used as a guideline, as summarized in Table 1.
These descriptive results give a mixed image. The mean differences between the conditions with the same complexity but subtitles enabled or disabled are the smallest, both for the test scores and mental effort ratings. The differences between conditions with the same setting for subtitles but different levels of complexity are larger, suggesting a main effect of complexity. Furthermore, this difference appears larger when subtitles are disabled, which might mean there is an interaction between complexity and subtitles. Note that Table 4 does not consider a possible main effect or interaction of language proficiency. The analysis of the full model with all the main effects and interactions is reported in the next section.
The results show that Model 1 has the most evidence, which consists only of the main effects of complexity and language proficiency, no main effect of subtitles, and no interactions between any of the factors. This model has nearly 108 times more evidence than the null model. Importantly, the evidence provided by this study favors the complexity + language proficiency model over complexity + subtitles + language proficiency model (which is the second-best model) by a factor of 10.30:1. In other words, there is 10.3 times more evidence for the C + L model than the C + S + L model. Furthermore, every model that does not contain a main effect of subtitles is stronger than its counterpart that includes an effect of subtitles.
Contrary to a range of previous studies, we found strong evidence that subtitles neither have a beneficial nor a detrimental effect on learning from educational videos. In addition, the presence or absence of subtitles also appears to have no effect on self-reported mental effort ratings. This is surprising given an apparent consensus that enabling subtitles increases the general accessibility of online content, as is stated by the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0 (WCAG, 2008). These null findings contradict two lines of research, one showing beneficial effects of subtitles, the other showing detrimental effects.
Earlier research that has shown beneficial effects of subtitles are primarily studies on second language learning, which show that second-language subtitles help students with learning that language (e.g., Baltova, 1999; Chung, 1999; Markham, 1999; Winke et al., 2013). While this appears conflicting with the results of the present study, the important difference is that the current study did not use language-learning videos but content videos, and did not measure gains in second-language proficiency. Based on the current study it seems that for content videos there is little to no benefit of enabling subtitles, even for students with a low language proficiency and for visually complex videos.
A different body of research has shown detrimental effects of subtitles. This is often labeled the redundancy effect, as the reasoning is that because the subtitles are verbatim identical to the narration they are redundant and can only hinder the learning process (e.g., Mayer et al., 2001, 2003). This is in clear contrast to the findings of the current study, which estimates the effect of subtitles to be (close to) zero. Importantly, the English language proficiency of the students did not moderate the effect of subtitles, even though the study included participants with the full range of English proficiency levels. As noted before, it might be that the subtitles helped the students with lower proficiency levels to increase their understanding of English, but it did not affect their test performance. With the Bayesian analyses we showed that subtitles do not merely have an indistinguishable effect (e.g., a nonsignificant effect in frequentist statistics) but that there is strong evidence for the absence of a subtitle effect on learning and mental effort. While these conclusions are only based on the selection of videos used in the current study, it puts the generalizability of the redundancy effect in question by showing that it does not hold for these specific videos, but arguably also for a wider range of similar videos. More research is needed to further establish the potential (lack of) effects of subtitles on learning from videos; both in highly controlled settings as well as in real-life educational settings. Specifically, it is essential to study the generalizability of findings like the redundancy effect and establish boundary conditions. Even though the current study used four different videos, each with four different versions, this is not sufficient to be able to generalize to all kinds of educational videos. However, by manipulating the complexity of the videos, we were able to show that the null effect of subtitles cannot be explained by complexity or element interactivity (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003; Sweller, 1999). Furthermore, we compared the amount of evidence for a wide range of different models and found that every model that does not include a main effect of subtitles is stronger than its respective alternative model that does include subtitles. In addition, the within-subject design of the study severely reduces the plausibility of confounding participant characteristics. Finally, it is noteworthy that the current study only used second- language subtitles, meaning that providing subtitles in the native language of students can still have a positive effect on learning and accessibility (Hayati & Mohmedi, 2011; Markham et al., 2001). 59ce067264
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